Jumat, 11 Januari 2019
Rabu, 13 Desember 2017
ETHNOGRAPHY
ETHNOGRAPHY
Ethnography (from Greek ἔθνος ethnos "folk, people, nation" and γράφω grapho "I write") is the systematic study of people and cultures. It is designed to explore cultural phenomena where the researcher observes society from the point of view of the subject of the study. An ethnography is a means to represent graphically and in writing the culture of a group. The resulting field study or a case report reflects the knowledge and the system of meanings in the lives of a cultural group.
Features of ethnographic research
• Involves investigation of very few cases, maybe just one case, in detail.
• Often involves working with primarily unconstructed data. This data had not been coded at the point of data collection in terms of a closed set of analytic categories.
• Emphasizes on exploring social phenomena rather than testing hypotheses.
• Data analysis involves interpretation of the functions and meanings of human actions. The product of this is mainly verbal explanations, where statistical analysis and quantification play a subordinate role.
• Methodological discussions focus more on questions about how to report findings in the field than on methods of data collection and interpretation.
• Ethnographies focus on describing the culture of a group in very detailed and complex manner. The ethnography can be of the entire group or a sub part of it.
• It involves engaging in extensive field work where data collection is mainly by interviews, symbols, artifacts, observations, and many other sources of data.
• The researcher in ethnography type of research looks for patterns of the group's mental activities, that is their ideas and beliefs expressed through language or other activities, and how they behave in their groups as expressed through their actions that the researcher observed.
• In ethnography, the researcher gathers what is available, what is normal, what it is that people do, what they say, and how they work.
Procedures for conducting ethnography
• Determine if ethnography is the most appropriate design to use to study the research problem. Ethnography is suitable if the needs are to describe how a cultural group works and to explore their beliefs, language, behaviours and also issues faced by the group, such as power, resistance, and dominance.
• Then identify and locate a culture-sharing group to study. This group is one whose members have been together for an extended period of time, so that their shared language, patterns of behaviour and attitudes have merged into discernible patterns. This group can also be a group that has been marginalized by society.
• Select cultural themes, issues or theories to study about the group. These themes, issues, and theories provide an orienting framework for the study of the culture-sharing group. As discussed by Hammersley and Atkinson (2007), Wolcott, and Fetterman (2009). The ethnographer begins the study by examining people in interaction in ordinary settings and discerns pervasive patterns such as life cycles, events, and cultural themes.
• For studying cultural concepts, determine which type of ethnography to use. Perhaps how the group works need to be described, or a critical ethnography can expose issues such as power, hegemony, and advocacy for certain groups.
• Should collect information in the context or setting where the group works or lives. This is called fieldwork. Types of information typically needed in ethnography are collected by going to the research site, respecting the daily lives of individuals at the site and collecting a wide variety of materials. Field issues of respect, reciprocity, deciding who owns the data and others are central to Ethnography.
Selasa, 12 Desember 2017
TALK AND ACTION
TALK AND ACTION
In speaking to one another, we make use of sentences, or, to be more precise, utterances. We can attempt to classify these utterances in any one of a variety of ways. We can try to classify them by grammatical structure, e.g., their clausal type and complexity: active–passive; statement–question– request–exclamatory; various combinations of these; and so on.
We may even try to work out a semantic or logical structure for each utterance. But it is also possible to attempt a classification in terms of what sentences do, i.e., to take a ‘functional’ approach, but one that goes somewhat beyond consideration of such functions as stating, questioning, requesting, and exclaiming.
Through conversation we establish relationships with others, achieve a measure of cooperation, keep open for further relationships, and so on. The utterances we use in conversation enable us to do these kinds of things because conversation itself has certain properties which are well worth examining. Our concern in this chapter is therefore twofold: we will be concerned both with what utterances do and how they can be used, and, specifically, with how we use them in conversation.
One thing that many utterances do is make propositions: they do this mainly in the form of either statements or questions but other grammatical forms are also possible. Each of the following is a proposition: ‘I had a busy day today,’ ‘Have you called your mother?,’ and ‘Your dinner’s ready!’ Such utterances are connected in some way with events or happenings in a possible world, i.e., one that can be experienced or imagined, a world in which such propositions can be said to be either true or false. They have been called constractive utterances.
Speech act is an act that the speaker performs making an utterance. There are some acts conditions in speech; (1) Locutionary act is the statement having grammatical structure and linguistic meaning, (2) Illocutionary act is the speaker intension of the utterance, (3) Perlocutionary act is the effects of the utterance on the hearer, (4) Felicity conditions are necessary conditions to make successful of speech acts, (5) Prepositional contain is the utterance produced if the composer commits himself to be a future act, (6) Preparatory condition is the utterance produced if speaker believes that the listener will not perform the act without being asked, (7) Sincerity condition is the utterance produced if the speaker wants the listener to do what the speaker has been asked, and (8) Essential condition is the utterance produced if the speaker show to listener that he really wants to persuade and does what he wants to listener.
Austin divides performatives into five categories:
(1) verdictives
(2) exercitives
(3) commissives
(4) behabitives
(5) expositives
Cooperation
According to philosophers such as Grice, we are able to converse with one another because we recognize common goals in conversation and specific ways of achieving these goals. In any conversation, only certain kinds of ‘moves’ are possible at any particular time because of the constraints that operate to govern exchanges.
Grice lists four maxims that follow from the cooperative principle:
• Quantity
• Quality
• Relation
• manner
Conversation
Speech can be planned or unplanned (Ochs, 1979). We should note that a lot of speech has a certain amount of planning in it: : it may not be all thought out and carefully planned and even rehearsed, as, for example, is the welcoming speech of a visiting head of state. Unplanned speech is talk which is not thought out prior to its expression. Unplanned speech has certain characteristics: repetitions; simple active sentences. i.e., words and expressions such as well, like, maybe, but, sort of, you know, I guess, etc.
Conversation is a cooperative activity also in the sense that it involves two or more parties, each of whom must be allowed the opportunity to participate.
Boxer (2002) provides a very short conversation that illustrates many of the points just made. Two female students pass each other on campus on the way to class:
• A: Hey, how are you doing?
• B: Fine, how about you? Going to class?
• A: Calculus, I hate it! (keeps moving)
• B: Ugh! Well, catch you later.
• A: Yeah, see you at the meeting.
Classroom conversation is different from ordinary conversation in the sense that the teacher may be said to ‘own’ the conversation, whereas in ordinary conversations such ownership may be said to be shared.
Conversations must also be brought to a close, e.g., an exchange of ‘Goodbye’s. It is into such places that you fit pre-closing signals which serve to negotiate the actual closing. Such signals can involve an expression like ‘Well, I think that’s all,’
The following is an example of such a closing:
• A: So, that’s agreed?
• B: Yep, agreed.
• A: Good, I knew you would.
• B: Yes, no problem really.
• A: Thanks for the help.
• B: Don’t mention it.
• A: Okay, I’ll be back soon.
• B: Okay, then, Bye. Take care.
• A: Bye.
Kamis, 16 November 2017
MID-TEST SOCIOLINGUISTICS
NAME : AGNESIA ELVI WISNITA S
CLASS/NIM : 5B/1588203084
SUBJECT : INTRODUCTION TO SOCIOLINGUISTICS
1. What
is Sociolinguistics?
Answer:
Sociolinguistics
is a study that studies or relates to the use of language, especially spoken
language, human language meaning, form, context and relation to society that
does not study linguistic variations and emphasizes the use of always varied
and heterogeneous languages. It is concerned with how language use interacts
with, or is affected by, social factors such as gender, ethnicity, age or
social class, for instance. Sociolinguistics has become an increasingly
important and popular, as certain cultures around the world expand their
communication base and intergroup and interpersonal relations take on
escalating significance. Sociolinguistics also the study of the relation
between language and society–a branch of both linguistics and sociology.
2. Why
do we learn Sociolinguistics?
Answer:
Sociolinguistics
is concerned with language In the social and cultural context. This means that
it focuses on the way a person speaks or behaves when they are placed in
specific environments or situations. Sociolinguistics also studies the way a
person speaks based on various factors like gender, race and culture. In
sociolinguistics class, we covered all the components that from language. One of the most intriguing and interesting
aspects of language is sociolinguistics. Sociolinguistics is the study of
language in its social context. This
means that we use language to socially define and express who we are, where we
come from, and who we associate with. It is amazing to see how often we judge
someone’s character by making assumptions about their background and their
character based simply upon how a person speaks.
3. What
is the relation between language and society?
Answer:
The
connection between language and society is tightly anchored. The relationship
of the two is deeply rooted. Language performs various functions in the society
and the society does the same way. If one will not exist, the other one will be
affected. Language is the primary tool for communication purposes, for
establishing peace and order in our society, for showing authority and power and
for attaining goals and objectives. But, it can also destruct the society if it
will use innappropriately. It must follow the conformity governing the society
to avoid conflicts and to meet the boundary of individual differences. Society
however controls our language by giving us preferences as what are acceptable
and not, because each one of us has our own perception or point of view. A
group of people may accept our language, but for others, it could be kind of
offence or insult
4. Pleaase
mention and explain the branches of linguistics!
Answer:
The
branches of linguistics are:
a. General
linguistic
Describes the concepts and categories of
a particular language or among all language. It also provides analyzed theory
of the language. Descriptive linguistic describes or gives the data to confirm
or refute the theory of particular language explained generally.
b. Micro
linguistic
Is narrow view. It is concerned internal
view of language itself without related how to apply it in daily life. Some
fields of micro linguistic:
§ Phonetics : the study of the
physical properties of sounds of human language
§ Phonology : the study of sounds
as discrete, abstract elements in the speaker’s mind that distinguish meaning
§ Morphology : the study of internal
structures of words and how the can be modified
§ Syntax : the study of
how words combine to form grammatical sentences
§ Semantics : the study of the
meaning or words and fixed word combinations, and how these combine to form the
meanings of sentences
§ Pragmatics : the study of how
utterances are used in communicative acts
§ Discourse
Analysis : the analysis of
language use in texts
§ Applied
linguistic : is the branch of
linguistic that is most concerned with application of the concepts in everyday
life, including language-teaching
c. Macro
linguistic
Is
broadest view of language. It is concerned external vie of language itself with
related to other sciences and how to apply it in daily life. Some fields of
micro linguistic:
§ Stylistics : the
study of linguistic factors that place a discourse in context
§ Developmental
linguistics : the study of the
development of linguistic ability in an individual, particularly the
acquisition of language in childhood
§ Historical
lingustics : the
study of language change
§ Language
geography : the study
of the spatial patterns of languages
§ Evolutionary
linguistics : the study of
the origin and subsequent development of language
§ Psycholinguistics : the study of the
cognitive processes and representations underlying language use
§ Sociolinguistics : the study of
social patterns and norms of linguistic variability
§ Clinical
linguistics : the application
of linguitstic theory to the area of Speech-Language Pathology
§ Neurolinguistics : the study of the
brain networks that underlie grammar and communication
§ Biolinguistics : the study of
naturl as well as human-taught communication systems in animals compared to
human language
§ Computational
linguistics : the study of
coputational implementations of linguistic structures
5. What
is standard language? Giving an example!
Answer:
Standard language is an official
form of language. This kind of form of languages are always artificially
modified at least to some degree. It is the way to use language in official and
formal situation as in newspapers and public speeches. The core idea of
standard language is to codify a public, particularly written language so that
it is accesible to every speaker of the language to be used in education, media
and science.
6. Elaborating
the language, dialect and accent, please!
Answer:
a) Accent : is all about pronounciation. Two
people may use the same grammar, the same syntax and the same vocabulary but
pronounce the words in a different way.
b) Dialects : on the other hand, have differences
not only in pronounciation but also in grammar and syntax.
c) Language : there is a saying that a language is a
dialect with an army. Linguistics often talk about language in terms of
political influence and power. By this they mean that a dialect with political
power becomes a language.
7. Giving
an example of formal language and informal language!
Answer:
a) Formal
language : he has decided to
accept the job
b) Informal
language : he’s so handsome in this
class (he’s = contraction)
8. What
aspects of language are sociolinguistics interested in?
Answer:
Sociolinguistic fieldwork
is the recording of speech within a natural context, such
as a family dinner conversation. The goal of fieldwork is to capture the way
people actually talk in casual settings. This gives researchers the best
possible representation of the natural linguistic world.
Sociolinguistics
is concerned with language as a ‘social and cultural phenomenon’ (Trudgill,
1974). Linguists of this area are interested in what Trudgil terms as the
‘clue-bearing’ (1974) aspects of language; how we may form ideas about an
individual based on particular features of their accent or dialect, for
instance. Studying the link between society and language can help us understand
more about ourselves, our identities and the communities we are a part of.
9. When
two or more people from different language met and tried to communicate, what
should they do?
a. Pidgin
b. Creole
c. Lingua
franca
Answer:
I chose Pidgin, because pidgin languages
share the main characteristic of a lingua franca in that they are used
as a means of communication between different communities. Where they differ from the previous is that pidgin
languages have no native speakers. Often, pidgin languages are based on a
simplified version of one main language, while borrowing vocabulary and grammar
from several additional languages. So, the original lingua franca used
around the Mediterranean was a pidgin language, for example – based on simplified
Italian, with additions from Greek, French, Arabic, and others. Alternatively,
they can originate from mixing together several simplified languages.
10. Why
do people switch and mix a language?
Answer:
There
are 5 reasons why do people switch and mix a language, such as:
·
It helps us convey a thought
·
We want to say something in secret
·
We want to get something
·
We want to fit in
11. Giving
an example of code switching and code mixing!
Answer:
Example
of code switching
-
Melika and I are so
depressed by the turn of events, aku harap semuanya baik-baik saja (Indonesia
affixation in an english word)
Example
of code mixing
-
Why you so sedih now?
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